Ping Ponging 
    Rather than playing one long phrase, one person plays a small group or chunk of notes, and then the second person plays the next group, alternating groups through the phrase. On a second pass, the players switch roles, so both play all of the groups. This cluster of notes may be constructed in several ways such as by beat, by phrase, by measure, or by slur group.  More advanced students may attempt to play these groups off the beat.  

Scale


   
Thirds, alternating by measure

5-Note Patterns, alt. by 4s, 8s, 16s, etc.

    Besides the examples above, players can ping pong arpeggios, seventh chords, broken seventh chords, modes, chromatic/whole tone/octatonic scales, and etudes. There are many benefits to this strategy. One of the most significant is the improvement in listening skills. Each player becomes more inclined to match the articulation, tone, tempo, and dynamics of the other. In addition, both players improve focus and concentration as they alternate groups.
    This alternation also provides an opportunity learn how to comfortably begin the phase at different points. Playing both sets of groups leads to a stronger understanding of the phrase as a whole and may lead to a better way to play the phrase. It also highlights intervallic patterns that might be missed when playing the phrase as a whole and this can lead to more creative choices in using colors and inflection. 
    By playing in such small groups, it is easier to sense any awkwardness and diagnose problem areas. It also leads to faster progress in finger coordination. The brain tends to retain information better when learned in smaller chunks with a consistent system. This means that students will learn at a faster speed and attain a higher rate of retention.

Repertoire 
    We also practiced our ensemble music together. We switched between first and second parts (or piccolo or alto) in order to learn the other part and better understand how the parts fit together. For example, as practice buddies, we have practiced Mendelssohn’s Symphony No. 4 and Ravel’s Daphnes et Chloé. In these practice sessions, we were able to address several concerns, including listening to the other part, seeing how the parts fit together, understanding the harmony, resolving intonations, matching articulation, and maintaining balance, dynamics, tone, vibrato, and breathing. We often worked on well-known orchestral repertoire, which gave us a solid foundation when given the music in orchestra.   

Duet Reading  
    In addition to ping ponging and repertoire, sightreading is a wonderful skill to develop during practice time. Working with a partner on duets makes it fun and also provides players with tools that they can use in solo, chamber, and orchestral repertoire. When another person is playing, one must keep moving in order to maintain the flow of the piece and learn to think quickly about the key signature, time signature, rhythm, and tempo. It also develops the ability to match one’s sound with another player, which is important for orchestral playing. It can be very useful to have some duets ready to play as well – whether for auditions, competitions, or studio parties. (We sometimes added two or more flutes depending on the requirements of the piece.) We also found that by learning the style of a certain composer in a smaller work such as a duet, it was easier to play the style in a larger work by the same composer.

Intonation 
    Intonation is an ongoing battle, often worked on through drone tuning on a tuner. Another, more beneficial technique is to practice intonation while playing with another person who plays the same instrument. The sound is similar, so it is easier to match tones and hear intonation discrepancies. Additionally, practicing drone tuning with another person allows one to work on intonation both with and without vibrato, which is helpful for improving intonation in a larger group setting. Partner practice on intonation also allows the players to work on balance. Often, we found that it was not a matter of being in tune, but of having the correct balance between the players. Balance can also be affected by a player’s use of vibrato.  By working on vibrato with a partner, one can quickly discern whether the vibrato is too wide or too narrow. One way in which to work on this is by playing a whole-note scale in unison or at various intervals with the q=60. Both players could practice vibrato with 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 vibrations per beat and listen for matching purposes. 


    Combination tones or resultant tones occur when two loud tones are played at the same time. The frequency of the tone can either be the summation or difference of the two pitches. We practiced difference tones to work on intonation. Player one played a C6 while player two played an A6. The better we each played each of our notes, the stronger the lower pitch. We continued chromatically up the scale working for a ringing sound.   
    We also made an intonation tendency chart for each note on the instrument. Player one played a note without looking at the tuner, and player two, while looking at the tuner, notated on the chart the note’s pitch tendency. We repeated this process several times to be sure we had a solid idea about where the intonation on the instrument was.
    Practicing with a friend is a fun, productive way to improve your flute playing. See what creative strategies you come up with during your time with your practice partner and we hope you have as much fun as we did.    

* * * *

Beyond the Practice Room
    Being practice partners fostered a spirit of collaboration rather than competition. This carried over to our personal lives as well.  Before each practice buddy session, Cosette would purchase an enormous chocolate chip cookie, eat half of it, and then bring the other half of the cookie for Schuyler to eat after the practice buddy session. This became a tradition each week, and became so engrained in Cosette’s mind that even after Schuyler graduated and moved on to graduate school, she would still bring a cookie to practice sessions with her new practice buddy (who does not like cookies), forgetting Schuyler was not there, leading to Cosette having to eat the entire cookie.  Furthermore, we became so used to playing in a similar manner and imitating one another that we started unintentionally dressing in a similar manner, often showing up to the conservatory in almost identical outfits. As practice partners, we not only received musical benefits, but also the reward of a lifelong friendship.

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    Technique on mallet instruments (xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and bells) is about 90% based on the use of alternating single strokes as the means of manipulating the mallets. This is as it should be, for the single stroke provides the most rhythmic and least complicated method of moving over the instrument. Single-stroke technique must be thoroughly mastered as a basis for performing on the mallet-played instruments.
    However, the use of the double stroke – two strokes in a row with the same hand – is also an important mallet technique. A double stroke in a logical place can facilitate the execution of a passage that would be awkward if played using alternating strokes exclusively. It basically minimizes time and motion in getting to the next pitch.
    One should not confuse the term double stroke with the expression rebound stroke. The double stroke uses two distinctly executed wrist strokes with the same hand, both the first and second notes identical in attack and in method of execution. The rebound stroke uses one basic wrist motion, with the second stroke being a rebound of the first and not identical with the first in attack or in method of execution. Although the rebound can be controlled with the use of the fingers and can be executed faster than the double stroke, it is of little value to mallet players, because it lacks the clarity and consistency of volume of the double stroke.

    The above example is froma transcription of the Bach Sonata No. VI for Unaccompanied Violin and provides an excellent example of how using only alternated strokes would tie the player’s hands in a knot. Regardless of which hand starts the passage, the player’s hands, if completely alternated, would have to cross each other in such a way as to make the passage unplayable. The only sensible way to play this section is to insert double strokes at key points, as illustrated.
    The example is only one instance, but there are many in which the use of a good double stroke can be employed. It takes practice to develop a good double stroke. The following are a few possible technique studies for developing this stroke.

    The above exercise is to be repeated numerous times. Play first with single strokes, then on the repeat with double strokes, then on the next repeat with single strokes again, continuing this pattern. It is a good exercise because it gives one a chance to match the sound of the single and double strokes. The exercise should be practiced slowly until the strokes match in all respects. Then it should be practiced at faster tempos, but always with the goal of achieving perfectly matched in sound and height strokes. Accenting the second stroke is another way of strengthening it.
    One of the best ways to develop a good double stroke is to work on a good triple stroke.

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    The above two exercises are good for developing facility and control with various intervals by use of the double stroke. Again, students must practice for clarity, not speed, and must use a double stroke, not a rebound stroke.

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    All the above exercises can be transposed into all major and minor keys. Students should use as much variation as possible, practicing at various tempos, with various dynamics. In other words, they should become flexible.

    The following are a few points to remember regarding the use of the double stroke:

• If possible, select small intervals for the use of this stroke.
• Be sure to use a real double stroke and not a rebound stroke.
• Most importantly, do not use the double stroke unnecessarily.

    The above examples are only a few exercises that will be useful to the student in developing the double stroke. The number of exercises is infinite. Mallet Control by George Stone is one good source of exercises. The student should also be taught to invent his own exercises. However, he must always work for clearness and not speed. He must develop a sensitive ear and become his most severe critic. Such matters as consistency in volume and avoidance of the node of the bar can best be check with a recording device to assist the ear in discriminating more acutely.    

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Instrument Registers
    I soon learned that dynamics are not simply the result of using variations of piano and forte but rather affected by the careful use of instrumentation. For example, the low frequency of the tuba has the ability to carry farther than a higher-register instrument, but with much less piercing ability than a piccolo. That is why foghorns are low-pitched and police sirens are high-pitched.
    One of the most important tools in balancing dynamics is taking advantage of an instrument’s range. Most books on orchestration recognize that instruments produce marked changes across their range. I can often get the dynamic level I want by using a specific instrument to perform a part. A lower note on a flute’s register can blend nicely, while a higher note speaks clearly. The dynamic level follows this tendency for other instruments, as well.

Accents
    A great deal of dynamic variation is possible by entering accents within a part rather than altering the entire section’s dynamic level. I may not want a loud or soft string section, but I want the attack of certain notes to emphasize a feeling or give it a percussive flavor. Jazz drummer Louie Bellson once told me he only played his hi-hat on the second beat of a jazz waltz. This was originally done at the behest of legendary jazz pianist Oscar Peterson, because playing the hi-hat on both the second and third beats made the music sound like a merry-go-round instead of swinging in 34 time. The chick of the hi-hat on the second beat served as an accent that made the piece swing. Less equals more.

Hairpins and Rests
    Momentary rises and falls within a piece are temporary but effective in altering the feel of a composition. Well-placed crescendos and de-crescendos can almost create the same effect as the entire ensemble breathing. It is remarkable how much this can accomplish for a piece. The range in dynamic variation need not fluctuate wildly from soft to loud; even small changes produce a powerful effect. It can lend excitement and anticipation to a passage or create contemplation and tenderness.
    Similarly, nothing is more powerful than rests, because these represent the ultimate in contrast. A rest takes the listener down to absolute silence. It is often said that the space between the notes is just as important as the notes themselves. The momentary pause after the renowned opening four notes of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony is intense. It allows a moment of brief reflection. The power is realized. Moreover, the brief pause also sets up the next four equally memorable notes.

Number of Instruments
    If every instrument in an ensemble plays all the time, the result is a wall of sound that is both monotonous and fatiguing. By using a combination of parts that oscillates effectively between players and sections within a piece you gain the added benefit of dynamic alteration without the need to demarcate these differences with triple forte to triple piano. In short, fewer instruments playing produce their own dynamic variation in and of themselves. Accomplishing this can be as simple as doubling parts or having entire sections drop out.

Mutes
    I cannot resist noticing a muted instrument. My ears always perk and my attention is diverted almost without exception. It has an arresting quality. A mute affects not only the timbre, but also the volume and presence of an instrument. The buzzy quality from a brass player’s Harmon mute isn’t necessarily softer than no mute, but it is also enhanced by its ability to cut through the ensemble with a unique alteration of the instrument’s sound quality.
    This is true of more than brass. Muted strings can do much more than soften the strings. Arranger Nelson Riddle once commented, “A muted string section produces a sound that seems covered in velvet.” It does more than reduce the volume; it creates a lush feeling that supports the other sections.

Playing Techniques
    Performance technique is an important aspect of dynamics. When string players move from arco to pizzicato there will be variation in dynamics. There will also be variation depending on whether bowing takes place near the bridge or away from it or where the notes are played on the bow. Another obvious variation is the use of sforzando to vary the attack, and at the same time, volume. Divisi playing also has an effect, embellishing the harmony while compromising overall volume.

Blended Instruments
    Composer Thomas Goss had this to say about orchestral balance: “It’s not simply a discussion of which instrument is louder and which is quieter. It’s about contrasts of color, pitch, distance, and meaning . . . A deep understanding of dynamic relationships is essential for the working orchestrator. Along with this should be a perception of not just the relative volume of instruments, but also their ability to project.” Individually, instruments have character, but when blended with another instrument you create a unique timbre. The blend of an oboe and flute, for example, produces a sound apart from either instrument played individually. There is both power and subtlety when merging sounds from two or more instruments.

Dynamics Are Not Absolutes
    Goss also asserts that relative loud and soft as expressed through dynamic symbols should be rejected as overly simplistic and misguided. He states, “This makes perfect sense if you think of dynamics as a thermometer with fixed scientifically measurable values. If mezzo piano and mezzo forte are neighbors on a linear scale, then certainly there should be a point in the middle that is simply mezzo, shouldn’t there?”
    But Goss points out forte is more than just loud; it represents playing with force. Piano isn’t simply soft; it is playing with restraint. The physicality of bowing and breath are dynamic processes, not simply graduations of highs and lows on a meter. Synthesized music often sounds artificial because of the lack of randomness in the mix. It lacks the human element that comes with subtle variations. This is such a recognized phenomenon that synthesized music offers the option of using randomized volume as a software command to create an organic sound that better approximates a live performance. As composers, conductors, and musicians, we should look at dynamic indications as a guideline, but not in the same way a sound engineer might try to quantify forte as 100 and pianissimo as 50 on a digital display.

Final Thoughts
    The indiscriminant use of dynamic indications belies the subtlety of evaluating the need for dynamic variation. You could play a piece at mezzoforte from beginning to end and still have variation in dynamics. You may be deceived into thinking that the presence or absence of dynamics in your score is proof that you have embraced the importance of dynamic variation. Unfortunately, simply placing them prominently in the score offers no assurance of understanding. The options for dynamic changes are much wider than can be achieved from adopting a soft-medium-loud mindset. If done with the same care as the selection of notes, rests, key signature, instrumentation, and tempo, a greater result will occur.  

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Notation to Imagery to Performance
    Professional musicians play every sub-phrase twice, first in the mind (imagery) and then echoed on their instrument. The first performance in the mind contains all the phrasing for an interesting expressive performance, including intonation and tone quality. Conductors and teachers should address rehearsal and performance comments to the moment when the musicians make performance decisions – during the imagery process before they play.

Breathing
    All aspects of expressive playing are based on breath control. Almost all student ensembles I have heard over the years breathe in pace with the tempo, which exhausts their air quickly and leads to struggles to move air, which in turn causes a loss of control, tone, and pitch. The initial inhalation should take about two seconds regardless of the prevailing tempo. A conductor should always make two gestures when starting the ensemble, regardless of the indicated tempo. The first is to bring the instruments up into a playing position, and the second is to take a two second support breath and give the beginning gesture. Ask musicians to breathe simultaneously with you while imaging the first sub-phrase. It is helpful to indicate the tempo beforehand to allow concentration on the timing of the breathing process. This routine should be used during rehearsals as well as performances.
    Each of the following examples will be analyzed for sub-phrase groupings and phrasing concepts that may be applied to the orchestration of the moment, aiding in creating an expressive and balanced ensemble.
 
Accent-and-Taper vs. Bold Style Articulations
    Accent-and-taper articulation is more common than bold accents, which are usually reserved for climatic moments, ending chords, and some fanfares. A sound image of the accent-and-taper-style articulation is an accent followed by a dimimuendo of the sustaining part of the tone. Pablo Casals used an example of the accent and taper as the natural decay of a well-tuned timpani, bass drum, or gong. Use an accent-and-taper articulation on all long tones. The conductor must be sure to establish the style because one person playing a bold articulation can ruin the accent and taper moment.
    In the following example, the opening fanfare style chord should be played as an announcement. Notice that in measure two, the accent is moved to the second beat in the bar, creating a syncopated moment. A bold-style accent is assigned to the final chord.

The Taper and First Tone of Phrases
    Certain aspects of expressive phrasing directly affect ensemble balance and the clarity of the musical elements contained in the score. One step to good balance is to make sure all long tones within each line taper so other interesting elements prevailing are noticeable. In addition, the first-tone principle calls for first tones of sub-phrases to be clearly presented so that the audience may notice the activity (entrances), especially in contrapuntal music.
    In the following example, notice that all the melodies progress over the pulse and barline. It is the nuance (especially the light tones in each grouping) within each sub-phrase that makes each moment noticeable to listeners and enjoyable to play. If any of the notes are fully sustained, the other activity at the time will not be noticed thereby ruining the ensemble balance.

The White Ensign by Jerry Nowak (Northeastern Music). Used with permission.

Expressive Phrasing and Note Emphasis
    Emphasis on the important tones in a phrase may be achieved either by playing the tones we wish to stress at the prevailing volume and the unstressed tones at a softer volume, or by playing the tones we wish to stress louder than the unstressed tones at the prevailing dynamic. Each results in quite different phrasing and style with the first version being the most expressive.
    The first version is animated with accents. Using the indicated mf dynamic on the accented tones (marked with an asterisk) and playing the tones in between lighter results in a wonderful expressive performance. This technique also helps focus the mind on the sub-phrases. Playing the accented tones louder and the tones in between at the indicated mf dynamic results in a performance that is quite heavy and labored in style. Use an accent-and-taper articulation on the accented quarter notes.

    The following legato example results in the same expressive performance as the animated example if the mp if applied to the important tones in the melody and the others in between are played as light expressions.

Section Playing and Expressive Phrasing
    Musicians playing second and third parts should play with the same expressive sub-phrases as the lead part, but the difficulty in this is having to do so without the lead part’s melodic content. In the following example, which shows the three parts as an ensemble section and then each part isolated for analysis, there is a significant difference in contour between the first part and the second and third parts. In spite of this, to sound good, the expressive phrasing must be the same in all parts. Conductors may find it helpful to mark inflection indications in the second and third parts.

Anacrusis Sub-phrasing
    When playing an anacrusis (pickup), players should think in terms of the first tone of resolution. This will allow for the proper inflection in the anacrusis, leading to its resolution. It is worth noting that this may also occur as sub-phrases within phrases.

Tones of Short Duration, On and Off the Pulse
    Light, short tones off the pulse that resolve to stronger, longer tones should be played lightly and as forward-looking pickups to the stronger tones.

    Emphasized short tones on the pulse resolve to lighter longer tones. The emphasized short tone followed by a lighter longer tone is accomplished by using as slight stretch with the air on the shorter tone. After the stretch (contraction), the result is a naturally lighter longer tone without a struggle.

Dynamics and Ensemble Balance
    Each dynamic level from pp to ff has a top, middle, and lower degree of volume. When a section of a piece has all parts marked mf, there must be an adjustment according to the importance of each element as related to the balance of the entire ensemble. The following graph, from soft to loud, indicates a spectrum of the possible dynamics.

    When mf is indicated for the entire ensemble, assign unison or harmonized melody an mf+, and assign sustained harmonic accompaniment, rhythmic harmonic accompaniment, and rhythmic accompaniment an mf-. Countermelody (above or below the melody in augmentation or diminution) can remain mf.

Tension, Resolution and Ensemble Balance
    Melodic tension and its natural passive resolution must be used in the other elements present in the score during the passive resolution. They may be whole-step tensions or half-step tensions, of which the half-step tension is more noticeable. The non-tone chords that create tension are accented passing tones, accented neighboring tones, appoggiaturas (downward resolution), retardations (upward resolution), and suspensions (downward resolution). (Key – whole-step (mildly tense): MT, half-step (tense): T, accented passing tone: APT, accented neighboring tone: ANT, appoggiatura: APP, retardation: RIT, suspension: SUS.)

Crescendo and Diminuendo by Sub-Phrases
    During a crescendo and diminuendo in a melody that contains variations in contour and rhythm, expressive phrasing should be applied during evolution of the dynamics. The changes are made by sub-phrases rather than note-to-note. All the subtle and obvious nuances of the style should be retained as the crescendo or diminuendo develops.
    The taper on the long tones allows for the next phrase to develop towards the conclusion of the crescendo and diminuendo. The dynamics in parentheses indicate a possible steady evolution of the dynamic and would not appear in the written part.

Rising Lines and Ensemble Balance
    In a rising line, the upper tones will be heard because of the natural tendency of the rising line to increase in volume. The lower tones of the line must be played with a little more emphasis (mf+) to be heard through the rest of the ensemble. Tapering the long tones will help the beginning of the tenor line be heard. The sub-phrase grouping in the tenor line is determined by the articulation of the slurred and staccato tones.

Crescendo and Diminuendo by the Numbers
    When there is a crescendo or diminuendo on one tone or ensemble chord, an evenly paced change in volume can be produced by using a singing counting system. Set the tempo and have the players sing on one pitch while counting from one to five and crescendoing from mp to f. Students should then immediately count down back to one, reducing volume incrementally back to mp. Coach the singing until the result is satisfactory. In the example below, students will be more likely to sing the crescendo well; students tend to rush the diminuendo and get to the mp too soon. As an exercise, vary the dynamic parameters and number of beats.

Leaps to High Tones in a Melody
    Leaps to weak or partial beats in the meter should be light expressions. Inexperienced players tend to play high tones with emphasis regardless of where they occur. This is also possible with downward motion.
    In legato passages, use a mild stretch with the air on the tones on the pulse to achieve a light expression on the upper notes.

    For animated passages, use an accent-and-taper articulation.

Syncopation
    Leonard Bernstein referred to syncopation as either an unexpected accent or the lack of an accent when one is expected. This is based on the natural strong and light beats in the prevailing meter.
    When playing in an animated march style, use accent-and-taper articulation on the syncopated tones, marked with an asterisk. Be sure that there is a high contrast of dynamics between the lighter staccato quarter notes on the downbeat and the accented syncopated second beats.

Repeated Tones
    Avoid exact repetition by varying the expressive phrasing of the repeated tones. The following melody has two clear possibilities. When the music has two repeated tones, as in measure seven, use meter as a guide for emphasis. Although the quarter notes are all accented, this does not mean that they are played the same. The style of the piece will help determine which version should be selected.
    This repeated tone motive uses an animated, over-the-bar-line sub-phrase grouping (3-1-2) to avoid exact repetition. In measures two, four, and six, the last tone is light because the line does not resolve.

    This repeated tone motive uses a more flowing, over-the-bar-line sub-phrase grouping (2-3-1) to avoid exact repetition.

Repeated Phrases
    Avoid exact repetition by varying the expressive phrasing of a repeated motive. Use both the meter and the motive’s position in the phrase as a guide.
    This first example has three sub-phrase repetitions. In measure one, the second repeated sub-phrase uses a lighter expression to avoid exact repetition; this is common in three-sub-phrase repetitions within the meter. In measure two, the three repeated sub-phrases use a slight crescendo to avoid exact repetition and progresses well to the cadence.

    This is a two-note sub-phrase repetition with various placement in the prevailing meter. In measures one through three, all the tones are accented but not played exactly the same. The inflection follows the natural placement of the two notes in the prevailing meter in four. In measures three and four, the short notes on the pulse resolve to lighter, longer tones as stated earlier. In measure three the placement is within the meter, while in measure four it is over the meter.

Rests and Upbeat Notation
    When playing tones on the upbeat or partial beats following a rest, the rest should be felt with the same style and character as the following tone.  My famous teacher, Charles Russo once remarked after I had played an accented upbeat following an eighth-note rest, “Jerry, you did not play the rest,” meaning that the tone I had just played had no style or character. 
    Notice that the arrows and dynamics are placed over the rests. The emphasis should be on thinking ahead and using the rests as a means of playing the following tones with style at the indicated dynamic.

Rising Lines That Do Not Resolve
    Rising lines that do not resolve to a strong beat in the meter are usually light expressions, as they leave the listener hanging on a weak or partial beat. In the below example, measures one and two have unresolved rising sub-phrases ending on partial upbeats. The first sub-phrase in measure three ends on a weak beat in the meter, and the second sub-phrase ends on the upbeat of beat four. A slight diminuendo should be applied to all the examples.

Rubato Phrasing: Fermata and Tenuto
    In Italian, fermata means stop and tenuto means hold. The term fermata is quite clear in common usage, but the term tenuto should be indicated with ten. written above the tone. There was a time when a straight line written at the note head would indicate the same instruction, but this marking has since taken on various connotations over the years and is no longer a clear indication.
    In rubato playing, sub-phrase groupings should evolve out of the ebb and flow of the phrase as a whole. The tenuto indicates that the tone should be extended beyond its normal length and usually played with a taper. The length of the extension is determined by the tempo and phrasing appropriate to the style of the piece and historical period. The following melody should be played in the lyrical style of the romantic early twentieth century music.

Rallentando
    The degree to which music should slow down during a rallentando is relative to the tempo that precedes the pending change. Subdividing the pulse is helpful in slowing down at an even pace. Be sure to continue to slow down to the end of the rallentando before continuing on.
    The rising line in measure one below does not resolve, so analysis indicates that a diminuendo is indicated. Coming out of a moderate tempo of a q = 84, avoid suddenly slowing down by pacing the rallentando over all eight eighth notes, using subdivision if needed.

Common Accompaniment Patterns
    Accompaniment configurations should be expressively phrased, as they contribute to ensemble balance by adding stylistic rhythmic activity. Notice that each example has light expressions within the pattern.

Meter in Four Patterns

Meter in Three Patterns

Conclusion
    Imagery must be correct before performance will be, and it is important that this be implemented into rehearsal. Incorporating the above teaching concepts into daily rehearsals will improve your students’ artistic playing and an ensemble’s expressive musical performance.

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Music competition is not new.
    The music contest, in its infancy, is believed to have been developed in ancient Greece, where groups of singers, instrumentalists, and solo performers would compete against one another at various feasts and festivals. The spirit of the ancient Grecian music contests eventually made its way throughout Europe, with primitive music competitions dating back to the German Minnesingers and Meister-singers contests of the seventh century and the Welsh eisteddfods of the fourteenth century. Music competition ultimately reached the United States, with early evidence suggesting that contests for violin and voice once took place in Virginia in 1737. However, one of the earliest known publicized music competitions occurred in Massachusetts in 1790, when the Stoughton society, organized and led under the direction of William Billings, defeated the Dorchester society in a singing contest after successfully singing Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus from memory.

The first national band competition in the United States was a failure.
    After a meeting in Chicago in 1923, a group known as the National Association of Band Instrument Manufacturers began a series of national band competitions after experiencing a significant decrease in band instrument manufacturing. The first of these competitions was the 1923 Schools Band Contest of America, which was heavily promoted by advertising agent Patrick Henry, who passionately endorsed the event in newspapers by exaggerating its scope. A mere 30 bands registered for the contest, but Henry alleged as many as 6,000 instrumentalists from 200 school bands would participate. Henry also claimed a renowned panel of judges would adjudicate the contest, when in actuality the only judge who attended the competition was Lieutenant William H. Santelmann, who was at that time the conductor of the United States Marine Corps Band. Besides the overblown promotion, it was determined that poor organization, ineffective management, inadequate performance spaces, controversial adjudication procedures, and a disregard for bands of different sizes and instrumentation tainted the 1923 Schools Band Contest of America to the point where another national band contest did not occur for another three years.

Contest ratings have been consistently inflating since the 1950s.
    In a trend study that analyzed grade inflation of band contest ratings from the Ohio Music Education Association State Band Festival between the years 1951 and 2000, it was discovered average scores of bands had risen 7.9% over the course of the 50-year study. The percentage of superior marks given also experienced an average increase of 16.3% overall to the point where Division I and Division II ratings were awarded almost equally between 1971 and 2000. These results are corroborated in more recent analyses of festival ratings, where it was revealed that 86.7% of bands earned a final rating of Division I or Division II between 2008 and 2010 in South Carolina high school band contests, while 91.5% of both middle and high school bands and orchestras earned a final rating of Division I or Division II during the year 2010 in instrumental festivals held in Virginia.

If you perform late, are well funded, and play difficult music, you should do well.
    While some may see this heading and roll their eyes, these factors are actually supported through research. A consistent finding in the literature concerning adjudicator reliability in solo and ensemble festivals was the variable of performance time. While the festival scenario itself is not considered to hinder a performer’s ability to play well, events that occur later in the day tend to earn higher outcomes than morning performances. Previous research studies also have indicated ensembles that perform easier repertoire actually earn lower ratings with less consistency between adjudicator scores than groups who perform more challenging music. Additionally, research supports the notion that schools from well financed, metropolitan-area school districts are more likely to achieve higher ratings at evaluative solo and ensemble festivals. While the verdict is still out on how these factors affect performances outside of solo and ensemble events, issues concerning adjudicator reliability abound in large ensemble adjudicated performances.

Students find more value in competitive festivals than directors.
    In a survey of 526 high school students from Surrey, British Columbia on the band festival experience, over half of all student participants believed the learning process is enhanced when teachers stress competition, music contests are key motivators that help improve practice habits, competition brings out the best in them, competitive festivals are more fun than noncompetitive festivals, and ensembles should be ranked in order and the rankings published for everyone to see. Despite these attitudes, prior research indicates directors tend to view the musical merit of competitions poorly but are aware of the potential nonmusical benefits of festival participation such as improving public relations for the school and using adjudicated performances as a means of motivating students.

    While we may never reach unanimity on the merit of competitive musical activities, it is important to generate discussion on this topic and discover meaningful ways of enhancing our students’ musical experiences. As long as what we do as music educators is always in the best interest of our students, our individual decisions on competition are justified.

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Multi-Colored Flair Pens
    When taking notes and making lists, the varied colors add contrast to ideas; I can use bright colors to make more important ideas stand out. It also makes things more visually interesting. (If that sounds eccentric, so be it!) On music scores, I use different colors to notate different things, such as red for notes in the percussion lines and blue in the brass. In private lessons, I also use them to add accidentals to a student’s music so that they stand out.

Multi-Colored Highlighters
    These are great for marking my scores and for students to use in marking the dynamics in their music. Some people might not like marking up the music that way, but if it makes a performance more musical, I’m all for it.

Silver Sharpies
    The silver color really stands out on darker surfaces and comes in handy when you have to put some type of identifying mark on a dark, difficult surface. I use them to write the school name and serial numbers on the outside of instrument cases.

Red Pencils with My Name on Them
    A few years ago, I got so tired of loaning out pencils and never seeing them again that I decided to do something about it. I bought a pack of 100 red pencils with “Return to Mr. Reely” on them. Now if a student leaves a pencil on the floor, I know if it’s mine. If I see a kid carrying a red pencil around in the hall, I can investigate with confidence and confiscate it if appropriate.

Visual Reminders
    One of the most annoying aspects of band directing is when students leave their instruments at home. I coach them on using visual reminders so that maybe it won’t happen again. (I say maybe because my youngest son once managed to get by his football pads when they were stacked in front of the back door. I’m still not sure whether he climbed or jumped over them.) I ask students if they have anything that they always bring to school with them; usually they will say a backpack. I then suggest that they put the instrument in the backpack or by the backpack. If that is not an option, I tell them to put the instrument in front of the door that they use to exit so they basically have to trip over it to get out.

Sticky Notes
    I have almost completely eliminated students asking me about what we are going to do or what time we are going to do it. The trick is that I put announcements on the whiteboard at the front of the class. I also have a whiteboard just for the color guard on their storage room door because their information is often different from other band members. In addition, there is a small white board by my office door as a last line of defense. Students are trained to look at that board for information before they walk in and ask me a question. To complete the information onslaught, I do use some modern technology: a text-messaging smartphone app called Remind works well for sending out information.

Multi-Colored Paper
    Sometimes if there is something important that I need to remember, I will write it in large letters on a fluorescent-colored sheet of paper and place the reminder in my briefcase so that when I open the case at home it will be difficult to miss. The bright colors also enable me to find papers more easily around the office. I may not remember exactly where I put something, but I can remember to look for the bright pink sheet. Trying to find a specific sheet of white paper is sometimes like looking for cotton balls in the snow.

Multi-Colored Index Cards
    If you haven’t figured it out already, I like things in color. (I used to avoid watching black and white movies until Ted Turner colorized them.) Index cards have many uses and the varied colors make them easier to find and can be used to categorize different types of lists. Perhaps the most obvious use is a to-do list, but what is great about using index cards for this is that it forces you to be concise.
    Index cards are also useful for taking notes. When I am in a meeting, a notecard is a handy way to write down salient points. If the meeting was a waste of time, I can easily toss the card into the trash can when I get back to my office.
    I often have several things that I need my assistant director to do, so I make a list on an index card and pass it along. Leaving a note for him is much more efficient than depending on both of our memories.
Notecards are also ideal reminders. Need to remember to do something in the morning? Write it down on a card and place it somewhere like the breakfast table so you won’t forget it.

Clipboards
    I have more clipboards than a doctor’s office. In fact, I have so many that I keep them on a Rolodex-like frame for easy access. Even when I use colored sheets of paper, I sometimes find that they will hide under other papers like a snake in the grass. With clipboards, it is more difficult for papers to get buried. Also, when I need to take papers home, they are easier to find in my briefcase if they are attached to a clipboard. Clipboards are also great for bus lists and any sheet to be passed around for signatures.

Everything in Its Place
    Keys, pens, smartphones, and clothing hunts can cause distraction and frustration, especially when time is of the essence. One would think that putting items in an unusual place would be easy to remember, but that is actually not the case.
    Have definite places to put things and never vary. It is best to have a specific location, but if you want more flexibility, have two or three places. My car keys and wallet have one place, and my smartphone is always in one of three places: by my bedside, on the piano (a good central location), or on the den table where I often use a laptop. This concept is even more important at work, where it is even easier to misplace things. I try to avoid setting anything down temporarily with the intention of getting it later; I take the time to put things where I always put them. This goes for batons, music scores, roll books, invoices, and method books.

    According to OrganizedWorld.com, the average office employee spends one and a half hours a day (six weeks per year) looking for things. I am unsure where I line up in that statistic, but my search time is reduced using some of these old-school methods. You may prefer to use your smartphone or tablet for such things, but make sure you can always find them when you need them.   

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